Which genes are turned on or off as the cell develops depends on both internal and external factors. Genes regulation is a mechanism wherein the past of a cell can influence the genes that are produced by the cell.
How do cellular functions change as a result of a gene sequence?Proteins are controlled by genes, which determine how cells function. Thus, the millions of genes that are expressed in a certain cell determine the capabilities of that cell.
Why don't all of the genes in a cell's genome express themselves at once, only a subset of the genes that do?Additionally, because DNA must be unwound from its tightly coiled shape in order to be translated and transcribed, only a portion of the genes are expressed by each cell. This conserves space.
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Answer: B
Explanation:
Identify three anatomical differences that distinguish the sympathetic division from parasympathetic division.
Sure! Here are three anatomical differences that distinguish the sympathetic division from parasympathetic division:
1. Location of Ganglia: Sympathetic ganglia are located near the spinal cord, while parasympathetic ganglia are located near or within the organs they innervate.
2. Length of Preganglionic Neurons: Sympathetic preganglionic neurons are shorter in length compared to parasympathetic preganglionic neurons, which are longer.
3. Neurotransmitter Release: The sympathetic division releases norepinephrine as its primary neurotransmitter, while the parasympathetic division releases acetylcholine as its primary neurotransmitter.
The three anatomical differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system are: origin of nerve fibers, ganglia location, and length of nerve fibers.
The sympathetic division and parasympathetic division are two branches of the autonomic nervous system that regulate involuntary bodily functions. The sympathetic division is responsible for the "fight or flight" response, while the parasympathetic division is responsible for the "rest and digest" response.
Here are three anatomical differences that distinguish the two divisions:1. Origin of nerve fibers: Sympathetic fibers originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord, while parasympathetic fibers originate from the craniosacral region, specifically the brainstem and sacral spinal cord segments.
2. Ganglia location: Sympathetic ganglia are located close to the spinal cord in a chain-like structure called the sympathetic chain or paravertebral ganglia. Parasympathetic ganglia, on the other hand, are located near or within the target organs and are called terminal or intramural ganglia.
3. Length of nerve fibers: In the sympathetic division, the preganglionic fibers are generally short, and the postganglionic fibers are long. In contrast, the parasympathetic division has long preganglionic fibers and short postganglionic fibers.
These anatomical differences contribute to the distinct functions and responses of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in regulating the body's involuntary processes.
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Question 59
UVA has been associated with all of the following except:
a. Excessive skin wrinkling
b. Cataracts
c. Enhancement of the effects of the sun
d. Lessened sunburning
Answer: d. Lessened sunburning UVA (ultraviolet A) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that can penetrate deep into the skin and cause damage.
It is commonly associated with skin aging and an increased risk of skin cancer. UVA radiation can also enhance the effects of UVB radiation (another type of ultraviolet radiation) from the sun, leading to sunburns and other skin damage. While excessive exposure to UVA radiation can lead to skin damage and contribute to the development of skin cancer, it does not actually lessen sunburning. In fact, UVA radiation can make sunburns worse by enhancing the effects of UVB radiation. This is why it is important to protect your skin from both UVA and UVB radiation when spending time in the sun.
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Which vitamin supplement has caused malformations of a fetus?
a. vitamin B12 b. vitamin A c. vitamin C d. thiamin
Excessive intake of vitamin A during pregnancy has been associated with fetal malformations and birth defects.
The right response is b. Vitamin A. While vitamin An is significant for the majority basicphysical processes, over the top admission of this nutrient, especially during pregnancy, has been related with an expanded gamble of birth imperfections and mutations of the hatchling.
The teratogenic impacts of vitamin A were first found during the 1940s when pregnant ladies who were treated with high dosages of vitamin A for morning infection brought forth babies with birth surrenders.
From that point forward, research has demonstrated the way that overabundance vitamin An admission during pregnancy can prompt a scope of birth surrenders, including focal sensory system mutations, congenital fissure, and heart deserts.
To keep away from the gamble of birth surrenders, pregnant ladies are educated to restrict their admission regarding vitamin An and keep away from supplements that contain elevated degrees of this nutrient.
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The influx of _______ ions initiates a neuron to fire an action potential. A) potassiumB) calciumC) sodiumD) chloride
The influx of sodium ions initiates a neuron to fire an action potential. The correct option is (C).
The influx of sodium ions (Na+) initiates a neuron to fire an action potential. When a neuron is at rest, there is a higher concentration of sodium ions outside the cell and a higher concentration of potassium ions (K+) inside the cell. This is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, which actively transports sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell.
When a neuron receives a signal, such as from a neighboring neuron, the sodium channels on the cell membrane open, allowing sodium ions to rapidly flow into the cell, creating a depolarization. This influx of positively charged sodium ions leads to a rapid change in the membrane potential of the neuron, which triggers an action potential.
The action potential then propagates along the neuron's axon, and when it reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters that signal the next neuron in the circuit. Once the action potential has been generated, the sodium channels close and the potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to flow out of the cell, which helps to restore the resting membrane potential.
So, The correct option is (C).
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Which level of primary control in eukaryotic gene activity involves the lifespan of the mRNA molecule and the ability of the mRNA to bind to ribosomes?
The level of primary control in eukaryotic gene activity that involves the lifespan of the mRNA molecule and the ability of the mRNA to bind to ribosomes is post-transcriptional control.
This level of control regulates the processing, splicing, and modification of the mRNA molecule, as well as its stability and translation efficiency. Post-transcriptional control mechanisms include alternative splicing, mRNA decay pathways, and regulatory RNA molecules such as microRNAs and RNA-binding proteins. By regulating mRNA abundance and protein production, post-transcriptional control plays a crucial role in determining cell identity, differentiation, and response to environmental cues. The level of primary control in eukaryotic gene activity that involves the lifespan of the mRNA molecule and the ability of the mRNA to bind to ribosomes is post-transcriptional control.
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A viruses are part of the system
A viruses are a part of the biological system, although they are not considered living organisms.
What are viruses?Viruses are infectious agents that are smaller than cells and cannot reproduce on their own.
They consist of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an outer lipid envelope that helps them enter and exit host cells.
Viruses cannot reproduce outside of a host cell; instead, they rely on infecting cells and hijacking the host cell's machinery to make copies of themselves. This can lead to a wide range of illnesses, from the common cold to more severe diseases like HIV, COVID-19, and Ebola.
While they are not considered living organisms, viruses are an important part of the biological system and play significant roles in the ecology and evolution of living things.
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How are farmlands in the US at risk due to the rise of new housing developments?
Farmlands in the United States are at risk due to the rise of new housing developments in several ways; Land Conversion, Fragmentation and Parcelization, and Increased Land Values and Taxes.
One of the primary risks to farmland from new housing developments is land conversion. As urbanization and population growth continue, there is increasing demand for land to build new housing developments, resulting in the conversion of farmland into residential, commercial, or industrial areas.
New housing developments can also contribute to the fragmentation and parcelization of farmland. Fragmentation refers to the division of large tracts of farmland into smaller parcels, while parcelization refers to the splitting of farmland into smaller plots for development.
The rise of new housing developments can also drive up land values and property taxes in the surrounding areas, including farmland. This can put economic pressure on farmers and landowners, making it financially challenging to sustain agricultural operations, especially for small and mid-sized farms.
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The fluid mosaic model defines the plasma membrane as a structure composed of multiple components, including the phospholipid bilayer, proteins, carbohydrates, and other lipids that exist in a dynamic arrangement. TrueFalse
True. The fluid mosaic model is a widely accepted model that defines the plasma membrane as a complex structure made up of multiple components.
The phospholipid bilayer forms the basic framework of the membrane, which is composed of two layers of phospholipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Proteins, carbohydrates, and other lipids are also important components that exist in a dynamic arrangement within the membrane. Proteins serve various functions, including transport, enzyme activity, and signaling.
Carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids to form glycoproteins and glycolipids, which play important roles in cell recognition and communication.
Other lipids, such as cholesterol, are also present in the membrane and contribute to its stability and fluidity.
Overall, the fluid mosaic model provides a comprehensive understanding of the plasma membrane as a dynamic and complex structure.
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____________ refers to the maximum volume of air a respiratory system can inhale and exhale.A) Tidal volumeB) Pleural volumeC) Vital capacityD) Pulmonary capacityE) Residual volume
Vital capacity refers to the maximum volume of air a respiratory system can inhale and exhale. Option C is correct. Vital capacity represents the total amount of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs during a maximal respiratory effort.
It is a crucial measure of lung function as it reflects the amount of air that can be exchanged during normal breathing as well as during exercise or other strenuous activities.Vital capacity is a dynamic measure that is influenced by various factors such as age, gender, height, weight, and physical fitness.
Typically, it is higher in males than females and increases with growth and development until the age of 20-25 years. After that, it gradually declines with age due to the loss of lung elasticity and decreased respiratory muscle strength.
To measure vital capacity, a spirometer is used which is a device that measures the volume of air inhaled and exhaled by the lungs. The person is asked to take a deep breath and exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer. The spirometer records the amount of air exhaled, and this value represents the person's vital capacity.
In conclusion, vital capacity is an essential measure of lung function that reflects the maximum volume of air a respiratory system can inhale and exhale. It is influenced by various factors and can be measured using a spirometer.
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Based on our discussion in lecture, expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila is:
Based on our discussion in lecture, expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila is critical for proper eye development.
Eyeless, also known as Pax6, is a transcription factor that plays a key role in the differentiation of cells that give rise to the various structures of the eye. Mutations in the eyeless gene can lead to severe defects in eye development, including absence or reduction of the eye structures.
The eyeless gene is a homeobox-containing gene that functions as a master regulator during the process of eye development. Its expression is tightly controlled in a spatiotemporal manner, ensuring proper eye morphogenesis. Therefore, the expression of the eyeless gene is essential for the normal development of the compound eyes of Drosophila.
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Mutants of Dorsal express ___ genes throughout the embryo.
Mutants of Dorsal express ventral genes throughout the embryo.
Dorsal is a transcription factor protein that plays a critical role in the development of the Drosophila embryo. It is involved in establishing the dorsal-ventral axis of the embryo and regulating the expression of genes along this axis.
In normal development, the dorsal is localized to the ventral side of the embryo and activates genes that are specific to the ventral side. However, in mutants of Dorsal, this localization is disrupted, leading to the expression of ventral genes throughout the embryo. This results in the loss of dorsal structures and the formation of a centralized embryo.
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Postganglionic sympathetic fibers release norepinephrine and are called cholinergic fibers.T/F
False. Postganglionic sympathetic fibers release norepinephrine and are called adrenergic fibers.
Cholinergic fibers are associated with the parasympathetic nervous system and release acetylcholine.
The release of norepinephrine by adrenergic fibers is an important part of the body's fight or flight response, causing an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate.
In contrast, the release of acetylcholine by cholinergic fibers promotes relaxation and digestion, as well as slowing heart rate and respiratory rate.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis in the body, with the sympathetic system responding to stress and the parasympathetic system promoting rest and relaxation.
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on the basis of the molecular structure of the protease bound to inhibitor, which best describes the type of inhibition indinavir is most likely to demonstrate? choose one: mixed noncompetitive competitive uncompetitive
Based on the molecular structure of the protease bound to the inhibitor, indinavir is most likely to demonstrate a competitive inhibition.
Antiviral drugs known as protease inhibitors are used to combat pathogenic viruses such RNA viruses like the hepatitis C virus and retroviruses like the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The viral load can be significantly reduced by protease inhibitors. Virus-encoded proteases, which are in charge of converting polyprotein precursors into functional proteins, and structural proteins, which are processed to make viral proteins, are two potential targets for protease inhibitors. Ritonavir and indinavir are two examples of protease inhibitors that are utilised by people with HIV infection.
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Proteins synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes can be sorted to the:mitochondria.chloroplasts.peroxisomes.nucleus.All of the answers are correct.
Proteins synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes can be sorted into various organelles within the cell, including the mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and nucleus. So all of the answers given in the question are correct.
Proteins synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes can be sorted into various organelles, including the mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and nucleus, depending on their specific amino acid sequence and targeting signals. For example, mitochondrial and chloroplast proteins contain specific targeting sequences that are recognized by receptor proteins on the outer membranes of these organelles, which then facilitate their import into the organelles. Peroxisomal proteins, on the other hand, contain peroxisomal targeting sequences that direct them to peroxisomes.
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What eats a desert wildflower
Answer:
birds and insects
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Disease or infection which causes damage to the sympathetic trunk on one side of the inferior neckcan result inA) Hirschsprung's disease. B) Horner's Syndrome.C) Raynaud's disease. D) mass reflex.
The condition you're describing, where damage to the sympathetic trunk on one side of the inferior neck occurs, is known as (B) Horner's Syndrome.
Horner's Syndrome is a neurological disorder that results from disruption of the sympathetic nerve pathway. This disruption can be caused by various factors, such as disease or infection. The sympathetic trunk is part of the autonomic nervous system and plays a vital role in controlling various involuntary bodily functions. Damage to this pathway can lead to a specific set of symptoms that characterize Horner's Syndrome.
These symptoms may include ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelid), miosis (constricted pupil), and anhidrosis (lack of sweating) on the affected side of the face. It is important to note that the other options mentioned, such as Hirschsprung's disease (option A), Raynaud's disease (option C), and mass reflex (option D), are not related to damage of the sympathetic trunk in the neck.
Hirschsprung's disease is a congenital disorder affecting the large intestine, Raynaud's disease is a condition causing constriction of blood vessels in response to cold or stress, and mass reflex is a spinal reflex related to spinal cord injuries.
In summary, damage to the sympathetic trunk on one side of the inferior neck due to disease or infection can result in Horner's Syndrome, which is characterized by a specific set of symptoms including ptosis, miosis, and anhidrosis on the affected side of the face.
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How long after initiation of a primary response do significant amounts of antibody appear in the blood?:
A. One day
B. 10-14 days
C. 4 weeks
D. 6 month
Is C. jejuni thermophilic or hemophilic and why
C. jejuni is not Hemophilia, which means that it does not require blood or blood components for growth.
Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) is a microaerophilic, thermophilic bacterium, which means that it prefers environments with low oxygen levels and high temperatures.
C. jejuni is thermophilic, meaning it thrives at temperatures ranging from 37°C to 42°C (98.6°F to 107.6°F), which corresponds to the temperature range seen in the human body. Because C. jejuni can live and develop in undercooked poultry and other meats, it is a common cause of foodborne disease in people.
It is crucial to note, however, that C. jejuni does require certain nutrients, such as iron, in order to thrive and reproduce.
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What were two conclusions of Darwin's that we now view to be dramatically mistaken? What error are these two an example of?
Two conclusions of Darwin that we now view to be dramatically mistaken are:
The idea of "blending inheritance," which posits that offspring inherit a blend of their parents' traits. Darwin believed that the characteristics of the offspring would be a mix of the traits of the parents. However, we now know that genetic inheritance is much more complex than this, and traits can be inherited in a variety of ways that don't necessarily result in a simple blending of traits.The idea that evolution proceeds in a gradual, linear fashion, with organisms slowly and steadily evolving over time. Darwin believed that evolution occurred in small, incremental steps over many generations. However, we now know that evolution can occur in sudden bursts and that the pace of evolution can be highly variable, depending on environmental factors and other variables.These two conclusions are an example of the error of overgeneralization, where a theory or concept is applied too broadly and without sufficient consideration for exceptions or complexities. While Darwin's ideas were groundbreaking and important for advancing our understanding of evolution, they were based on limited knowledge and understanding of genetics and evolutionary processes. As our knowledge and understanding of these areas has grown, we have been able to refine and improve upon Darwin's original theories.
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Question 80
How often should a septic tank for a private home be serviced?
a. every year
b. every 5 to 10 years
c. every 3 to 5 years
d. every 10 years
The septic tank for a private home be serviced in every 3 to 5 years which is option C.
A drainfield (also known as a soil absorption field) plus a septic tank make up a conventional septic system. Before it is released into the land, certain alternative systems are built to evaporate or disinfect wastewater.
In the septic tank, sediments and floatable debris (such oils and grease) are separated from the wastewater while organic matter is broken down. In traditional or soil-based systems, the fluid, sometimes referred to as effluent, is released from the septic tank into a network of perforated pipes buried in a leach field, chambers or other specialised units intended to gradually release the effluent into the soil. The drainfield is the name of this region.
Alternative methods remove or neutralise pollutants including microorganisms that cause illness, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other contaminants by allowing septic tank effluent to flow through sand, organic matter (like peat and sawdust), created wetlands, or other media with the use of pumps or gravity.
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Part completeWhich aspects of a region's climate have the most impact on plants and animals?
The aspects of a region's climate that have the most impact on plants and animals include temperature, precipitation, humidity, and the frequency and intensity of weather events such as storms and droughts.
Temperature affects many aspects of an organism's physiology and behavior, including metabolic rates, growth rates, and the timing of life cycle events such as reproduction and migration. Precipitation and humidity are important factors for plants, as they affect water availability and can limit growth and reproduction. For animals, these factors can affect the availability of food and water, as well as the availability of suitable habitat. The frequency and intensity of weather events can also have important impacts on populations of plants and animals, by disrupting their habitats, causing mortality, or altering ecosystem processes.
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Question 60
A pigeon control program to eliminate nesting places should be preceded by a. baiting the area
b. ectoparasite control
c. trapping and humanely disposing of pigeons
d. installing ground electrical wires
A pigeon control program to eliminate nesting places should be preceded by trapping and humanely disposing of pigeons. The correct option is C.
In order to control pigeon populations and eliminate their nesting places, the first step should be to trap and humanely dispose of the birds. This can be done using specially designed pigeon traps that capture the birds without harming them, and then relocating them to a suitable environment away from the trapping site.
Once the birds have been removed, measures can be taken to prevent them from returning, such as sealing off nesting sites, eliminating food sources, and implementing deterrents like spikes or netting. Baiting the area, ectoparasite control, and installing ground electrical wires are not the most effective or humane ways to control pigeon populations, and may not address the underlying problem of the birds' presence.
The correct option is C.
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Crystals of calcium and phosphorus that make up bones and teeth is called____
The crystals of calcium and phosphorus that make up bones and teeth is called hydroxyapatite.
The crystals of calcium and phosphorus that make up bones and teeth are called hydroxyapatite crystals. These crystals give bones and teeth their hardness and strength. Hydroxyapatite crystals are composed of calcium, phosphorus, oxygen, and hydrogen, and they form a complex structure that is able to withstand stress and pressure.
In addition to providing strength, these crystals also play a role in the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body. Maintaining proper levels of these minerals is essential for many bodily functions, including muscle function, nerve signaling, and blood clotting. As we age, the amount of hydroxyapatite in our bones can decrease, leading to bone loss and a higher risk of fractures. To maintain strong bones and teeth throughout life, it is important to consume a healthy diet rich in calcium and phosphorus, and to engage in regular physical activity.
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I NEED HELP ASAP!
In an ecosystem with four levels—producers, primary consumers, and two higher-level consumers—describe where the decomposers operate within the context of these trophic levels. Provide at least two examples.
Decomposers break down dead organic matter into simpler inorganic compounds for uptake by plants and other organisms.
Thus, in an ecosystem consisting of producers, primary consumers, two higher-level consumers, decomposers operate at the lowest trophic level, along with plants where they break down dead organic matter to produce nutrients.
In a forest ecosystem, decomposers like fungi break down dead plant material and return nutrients like carbon, phosphorus, etc. back to the soil allowing producers like plants to take up these nutrients for growth. Decomposers like earthworms also break down dead plant material that contributes to the nutrient cycling, thereby, supporting the growth of grasses, herbivores, etc.
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Question 22 Marks: 1 Items such as tennis balls, golf balls, gloves, and auto tires that come into contact with poison ivy, oak, and sumac may spread the poison as well as physical contact with the plants.Choose one answer. a. True b. False
The given statement " Items such as tennis balls, golf balls, gloves, and auto tires that come into contact with poison ivy, oak, and sumac may spread the poison as well as physical contact with the plants" is false because Items such as tennis balls, golf balls, gloves, and auto tires cannot spread poison ivy, oak, or sumac.
Tennis balls, golf balls, gloves, and car tyres will not transmit poison ivy, oak, or sumac. These plants produce an oil called urushiol, which causes a skin allergy.
The oil can remain active for a long time on surfaces such as clothing, tools, and skin, and direct contact with these surfaces might produce a reaction.
The products stated in the question, on the other hand, are unlikely to come into direct touch with the plants or the oil, and hence cannot transmit the poison.
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Cytosol is also known as: blood plasma. intracellular fluid (ICF). extracellular fluid (ECF). the cytoskeleton.
Cytosol is also known as B. Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Cytosol is a term used to describe the fluid that is found inside the cell membrane, but outside of the organelles. It is sometimes also referred to as the intracellular fluid (ICF), as it is a part of the cell's interior. The cytosol is a complex mixture of water, ions, enzymes, and other molecules, which all work together to maintain the cell's health and function. One of the most important functions of the cytosol is to provide a medium for chemical reactions to take place.
Many metabolic processes occur within the cytosol, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and protein synthesis. Additionally, the cytosol is responsible for the transport of molecules and ions between different parts of the cell. The cytosol is also important in maintaining the structural integrity of the cell. It contains a network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton, which helps to maintain the cell's shape and provides support for the organelles. Without the cytosol, the organelles would not be able to function properly and the cell would lose its structure.
In conclusion, the cytosol is an essential component of the cell, serving both as a medium for chemical reactions and a structural support system. It is also referred to as the intracellular fluid (ICF) and should not be confused with the extracellular fluid (ECF), which is found outside of the cell. Therefore, Option B is correct.
The Question was Incomplete, Find the full content below :
Cytosol is also known as
A. Blood plasma.
B. Intracellular fluid (ICF).
C. Extracellular fluid (ECF).
D. The cytoskeleton.
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Heating inactivates enzymes by
A. changing the enzyme's three-dimensional shape.
B. removing phosphate groups from the enzyme.
C. breaking the covalent bonds that hold the molecule together.
D. causing enzyme molecules to stick together.
A. Changing the enzyme's three-dimensional shape.
Protein molecules are called enzymes to catalyze particular chemical processes in living things. The distinctive three-dimensional structure of enzymes is essential to how they work. The enzyme may be denatured or unfolded by heat, losing its three-dimensional form and therefore its biological activity. The active site, where the substrate attaches and the reaction takes place, can become deformed when an enzyme changes its shape, making it impossible for the enzyme to catalyze certain enzymes for them to work. The enzyme will denature and the process will slow down or halt if the temperature increases too much. Other causes, such as pH fluctuations, exposure to chemicals, or high pressure, can also cause enzyme denaturation.
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What percentage of groundwater drawn from aquifers each year is used for irrigation?
Approximately 70% of groundwater
Answer - Approximately 70% of groundwater drawn from aquifers each year is used for irrigation. This significant percentage highlights the importance of sustainable water management in the agriculture sector to preserve our valuable water resources.
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To what kingdom does a squid belong to _____ what phylum _____ what class_____
Explanation:
kingdom: Animalia
phylum: Mollusca
class: cephalopoda
subclass: coleoidea
Old world monkeys have prominent tails; apes and humans do not. At what labeled point did this evolutionary event (loss of the tail) occur?Point 1Point 2Point 3
The loss of tail (evolutionary event) in apes and humans occurred at Point 3.
The loss of the tail in apes and humans is a significant evolutionary event that occurred over millions of years. This happened at Point 3, as it was during the evolution of hominids, the group that includes humans and their ancestors, that the tail was gradually reduced and eventually disappeared altogether.
Old world monkeys, on the other hand, have prominent tails that are used for balance, communication, and other functions. This difference is due to the divergent evolution of these two groups, with hominids evolving in a different direction that prioritized the use of hands and bipedal locomotion, which did not require a tail. The loss of the tail in hominids is a prime example of how evolution can lead to significant changes in the anatomy and behavior of organisms over time.
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