Somatic mutations have an effect on the individual who carries the mutation, however they cannot be transferred on to offspring.
A somatic mutation is any change at the cellular level in somatic tissues that occurs after fertilization. Somatic mutations do not affect the germline and therefore don't pass on to offspring. Somatic mutations are a normal consequence of aging and occur throughout the life cycle of an organism, either unexpectedly as a result of errors in DNA repair mechanisms or as a direct response to stress.
Environmental stressors and errors throughout cellular replication increase the likelihood of Somatic mutations occurring.
Radiation, exposure towards certain chemical compounds, and intracellular processes that generate free radicals are all stressors that can cause cellular damage and Somatic mutations.
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How does the nervous system muscular system and skeletal system work together in order to allow humans to move?
Your skeletal (voluntary) muscles are signalled to contract by your nervous system, which is composed of your brain and nerves. In response to the message, your muscles tighten up (contract).
With the help of tendinous tissue, muscles are connected to bones and when they contract, they can cause movement around a joint. Spinal motor neurons, the last common pathway to the muscles, are controlled by the central nervous system to cause these movements. The tendon is pulled upon when the muscle contracts or gathers. Muscles are joined to bones by tendon.
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Birds regulate their body temperature _____________. This is called _________________.
How do I stop my snails from reproducing?
The only fool-proof way to keep snails from reproducing is to keep them separate from each other.
How to stop snails from breeding?One of the easiest way to lessen the number of snails is to feed less fish food. Despite rapid reproduction cycle, snails can reproduce new babies only if they have enough sustenance. Therefore, give only that much food that can be completely consumed by your fish within a few minutes.
One of the way is to distinguish the sexes of your snails and set up a male-only or female-only tank. But, not all species are the same as some are hermaphrodites, which means they can breed independently without the need of the opposite sex to fertilize their eggs.
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Why do jewelers need cyanide?
Answer:
Cyanide, in the form of sodium and potassium cyanide, is used in the jewelry manufacturing industry for electroplating, “cyanide bombing,” and metal stripping
Which is the best explanation on how does the muscular and skeletal system work together to help the body?
Muscles connect to your skeleton and they contract and move the skeleton along. Your skeletal system is made up of cartilage and calcified bone that work together.
Bones can be pulled by muscles, but they cannot be pushed back into place by muscles. As a result, flexors and extensors work in pairs. A joint in the flexor contracts to bend the limb. In order to extend or straighten the limb at the same joint once the movement is finished, the flexor relaxes and the extensor contracts.
The bones of the skeletal system serve to protect the body's organs, support the weight of the body, and give the body shape. The muscles of the muscular system attach to these bones, pulling on them to allow for movement of the body.
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What pregnancy category is not safe to administer to a pregnant woman under any condition?
Category X is not safe to administer to a pregnant woman under any condition.
What category of drug should not ever be taken by a pregnant woman?The FDA divides different pregnancy-related medications into five categories: A, B, C, D, and X. Category X is categorically forbidden during pregnancy, while Category A is regarded as the safest category. Although there are no appropriate and well-controlled human research and animal reproduction studies have demonstrated a negative effect on the fetus, there may be benefits to using the medicine during pregnancy that outweigh any dangers. Pregnant women may use medications from this class if the advantages to the mother outweigh the risks to the fetus (i.e. a life threatening situation or a serious disease for which safer medication cannot be used or are not efficacious). This class of drugs includes, among others, phenytoin and valproic acid.To learn more about Category X refer to:
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cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease that results from a defective cftr protein that alters ion flow through the cell membrane such that water does not cross the cell membrane. gene therapy is being used to attempt to help cystic fibrosis patients. which step is unnecessary to develop a gene therapy treatment for cystic fibrosis?
The step that is unnecessary to develop a gene therapy treatment for cystic fibrosis is a) make antibodies to the defective CFTR protein to enhance the patient's immune system.
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a life-threatening genetic disorder, primarily affecting the lungs and digestive system.
To develop a gene therapy treatment for this condition, researchers have identified the defective CFTR protein as the cause of the illness, and have focused on ways to replace or repair the defective gene.
However, creating antibodies to enhance the patient's immune system is an unnecessary step in this process. Hence, option a is correct.
Instead, the latest research has focused on using gene editing techniques to replace the defective CFTR protein with a functional version, or to repair it in-situ. This has shown promise in clinical trials and is a promising step towards a cure for CF.
Although a part of your question is missing, you might be referring to this question:
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease that results from a defective CFTR protein that alters ion flow through the cell membrane such that water does not cross the cell membrane. Gene therapy is being used to attempt to help cystic fibrosis patients. Which step is unnecessary to develop a gene therapy treatment for cystic fibrosis?
a) make antibodies to the defective CFTR protein to enhance the patient's immune system
b) make proteins to the defective CFTR protein to enhance the patient's immune system
c) none of the above
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What is the best definition of vehicle?
A vehicle is a machine that has an engine and is used to transport people from one location to another, such as a car, bus, or truck.
A vehicle is indeed a machine used to transport people or goods. Wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles (motorbikes, cars, tractor trailers, buses, disabled mobility scooters), railed vehicles (trains, tram lines), watercraft ( ships, submarines), patrol boats (screw-propelled vehicles, speedboat), aircraft (aero planes, helicopters, aerostats), and spacecraft are examples of vehicle.
Land vehicles are broadly classified based on how they steer and start driving forces against by the ground: wheeled, tracked, railed, as well as skied. ISO 3833-1977 is indeed the standard for road kinds of vehicles, terms, and definitions, which is also used in international legislation.
Over one billion bicycles are in use worldwide. There was an estimated 590 million cars but also 205 million motorcycles throughout service worldwide in 2002.
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Identify the parts labelled in the Figure below.
Waxy cuticle, spongy, mesophyll, stroma, and lower epidermis are the labelled parts in the picture.
This plant has a large number of chloroplasts in each of its green cells. The stroma, a semifluid material that fills each chloroplast and is a source of many of the proteins and photosynthesis-related enzymes, is essential to the process of photosynthesis. The photosynthetic dark reaction actually takes place in the stroma.
Normal stomatal behaviour is for them to open during daylight hours and close at night. By opening and closing the pores in the leaves, it serves the primary purpose of facilitating the exchange of gases. The leaves' water retention is reduced thanks to it.
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1.List the groups of reptiles that are mentioned in the text. Which group is the smallest?
Lizards and snakes, turtles, crocodilians, and the tuatara are reptiles. The tuatara is the smallest group.
All sauropsids, with the exception of birds, fall into the paraphyletic grouping known as Reptilia, which is the most widely used definition of reptiles. The four groups of living reptiles are squamates, crocodilians, turtles, and rhynchocephalians.
Air-breathing vertebrates known as reptiles have unique skin consisting of scales, bony plates, or a combination of both. Crocodiles, snakes, lizards, turtles, and tortoises are some of them.
Characteristics:
Vertebrates include reptiles. They are adamant.Scales fully encircle their entire bodies.They possess frigid blood.Reptiles lay eggs with shells or give birth to live babies.Every species internally fertilises its eggs.Every reptile species has at least one lung.Learn more about tuatara from:
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a green colored amniotic fluid is received in the laboratory for testing. the color of this specimen most likely indicates the presence of
The green colored amniotic fluid received in the laboratory for testing is an indication of a medical condition known as meconium peritonitis. Meconium peritonitis is a rare, but serious, condition in which the baby’s first stool, or meconium, passes into the amniotic fluid and causes an infection in the baby’s abdomen.
It is possible that the green color in the specimen is due to the presence of bacteria, fungi, or other infectious agents in the fluid. Meconium peritonitis is a medical emergency, as it can cause serious harm to the baby if left untreated.
The infection can cause the baby’s abdomen to become enlarged and can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition that can occur when the bloodstream is overwhelmed by bacteria or other toxins. The infection can also cause the baby to have breathing difficulties and, in some cases, can cause the baby’s organs to stop functioning.
In order to diagnose meconium peritonitis, laboratory tests must be conducted to determine the presence of bacteria or other infectious agents in the fluid. This includes testing for the presence of white blood cells, which may indicate an infection.
Other tests, such as analysis of the fluid’s pH and the presence of glucose, can also help to determine if an infection is present. If an infection is present, the baby must be treated with antibiotics as soon as possible to prevent more serious complications.
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Explain proteinsynthesis in detail.
Protein synthesis is the process by which cells create proteins. It occurs in two stages: transcription and translation. In transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into a complementary RNA molecule. In translation, the RNA molecule is read and used to synthesize a specific protein molecule.
During transcription, the DNA double helix unwinds and the enzyme RNA polymerase reads the gene's DNA sequence and creates a single-stranded RNA molecule with a complementary sequence. This RNA molecule is called messenger RNA, or mRNA, because it carries the information needed to synthesize the protein from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Translation occurs at the ribosomes, which are complex structures made up of RNA and protein. The ribosomes read the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA molecule and use it to synthesize the protein. Each sequence of three nucleotides, called a codon, corresponds to a specific amino acid, the building blocks of proteins. The ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and add the corresponding amino acids in the correct order to synthesize the protein.
Protein synthesis is essential for the growth and repair of cells, as well as for the production of enzymes and hormones that are necessary for the proper functioning of the body. It is a complex process that requires the coordination of many different molecules and cellular structures.
the caloric values of fat, protein, and carbohydrate are 9.0 kcal/g, 4.0 kcal/g, and 4.0 kcal/g respectively. how much energy would a serving of 22 g of food provides if it contains 2.0 g of fat and 12 g protein?
The serving of 22 g of food provides 2.0 g of fat and 12 g of protein. This would provide 18 kcal of energy from fat (2.0 g x 9.0 kcal/g) and 48 kcal of energy from protein (12 g x 4.0 kcal/g). Therefore, the total energy provided by the serving of food is 66 kcal (18 kcal + 48 kcal).
The caloric values of fat, protein, and carbohydrates are 9.0 kcal/g, 4.0 kcal/g, and 4.0 kcal/g respectively. This means that each gram of food provides different amounts of energy depending on its nutritional content. For example, a serving of 22 g of food containing 2.0 g of fat and 12 g of protein would provide a total of 154 kcal of energy. The 2.0 g of fat in the food would provide 18 kcal of energy (2.0 g x 9.0 kcal/g = 18 kcal).
The 12 g of protein in the food would provide 48 kcal of energy (12 g x 4.0 kcal/g = 48 kcal). And the remaining 8 g of carbohydrates in the food would provide an additional 32 kcal of energy (8 g x 4.0 kcal/g = 32 kcal). Thus, the total energy provided by this serving of food is 18 + 48 + 32 = 98 kcal. In conclusion, a serving of 22 g of food containing 2.0 g of fat and 12 g of protein would provide a total of 154 kcal of energy. This is made up of 18 kcal from the fat, 48 kcal from the protein, and 32 kcal.
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what are sticky ends? multiple choice single-stranded dna sequences that are generated by staggered cuts single-stranded dna sequences that are generated by blunt cuts double-stranded dna sequences that are generated by blunt cuts double-stranded dna sequences that are generated by staggered cuts different from cohesive ends
DNA fragments with "sticky ends" have one strand that is longer than the other due to the action of a restriction enzyme.
Do sticky ends have single-stranded endings like DNA fragments do?The single-stranded ends of a segment of DNA that are produced by some restriction enzymes are the correct answer (A). Sticky ends are brief overhangs of DNA produced by particular restriction enzymes (such as EcoRI), which are responsible for producing this kind of end.
What function do sticky ends serve?Sticky ends serve as a conduit for the cutting and pasting of DNA. DNA single strands with sticky ends extend past one another. They make it simple to ligate DNA into position that has a complementary sequence.
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point in the cell cycle where the cell verifies that it is ready to go to the next phase____
The sister chromatids are pulled back and forth by the kinetochore microtubules during metaphase until they align along the equatorial plane, which is the center of the cell. The metaphase checkpoint, a crucial checkpoint in the middle of mitosis, is when the cell makes sure it is prepared to divide.
Checkpoint G1
The G1 checkpoint ascertains if all circumstances are ideal for cell division to continue. At the G1 checkpoint, also known as the restriction point (in yeast), the cell commits irrevocably to the process of cell.
Checkpoint G2
If specific requirements are not met, the G2 checkpoint prevents entry into the mitotic phase. Protein stores and cell size are evaluated, same like at the G1 checkpoint.
M Checkpoint
Near the conclusion of the metaphase phase of mitosis, the M checkpoint takes place. Because it checks to see if all of the sister chromatids are appropriately connected to the spindle microtubules, the M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint.
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what transition was marked by a change from early multicellular organisms lacking mouths and feelers, to more complex organisms that had small fins, mouths, simple feelers, eyes for sensing, and primitive teeth?
The jawless fish has been derived from the advanced change from early multicellular organisms lacking mouths and feelers.
A mild touchy pineal eye, an eye-like shape that could discover mild. A cartilaginous skeleton, a skeleton made from a bendy rubber-like supportive fabric known as cartilage.Although a minor detail of cutting-edge marine fauna, jawless fish have been outstanding many of the early fish withinside the early Paleozoic.
Two sorts of Early Cambrian animal which seemingly had fins, vertebrate musculature, and gills are recognized from the early Cambrian Maotianshan shales of China: Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia.
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What does the term VLCUFA stand for and how is it different than a VLCSFA
Answer:
vlcufa stand forvery long chain fatty acid
Explanation:
vlcsfa stand fir very long chain saturated fatty acid
it is the difference ok the foolfirm is
Why does atherosclerosis occur with age?
Atherosclerosis occurs with age because of decrease in metabolic activities, growth and weakening of elastic strength of muscle structure.
Atherosclerosis is a disease characterized by hardening of muscles which are present near the heart due to which heart veins and arteries are not able to pump blood properly or suffer from blockages due to uneven contractions. It increases chances of heart attack, diabetes, high blood pressure etc. It occurs in all age groups but maximum cases are seen as the age progresses. It is because with age, the ability of the body to digest fats and other minerals decreases and as a result fats, lipids and cholesterol gets accumulated in the body. This causes fatty lesions and accumulation of inflammatory cells, smooth muscle cells, lipid, and connective tissues in the intima.
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All of the following increase blood vessel permeability EXCEPT
EXCEPT for leukotrienes and histamine, all of the following increase blood vessel permeability.
Histamine and leukotrienes are chemical compounds that cause inflammation by stimulating it. Eicosanoids, like leukotrienes, are important in the pathogenesis of inflammation. They are produced in leucocytes using 5-lipoxygenase to convert arachidonic acid into them. Histamine is released by the body in response to an allergen, such as pollen or animal dander, which causes inflammation at the point of contact. This process is a crucial component of the immune response of the body.
It is a collection of negative responses delivered by the typical safe framework, such as hypersensitivities and autoimmunity. They are commonly referred to as an over-response of the resistant framework, and these responses can be harmful, awkward, or even lethal. Excessive touchiness responses necessitate a pre-sharpened host condition.
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Are meiosis chromosomes haploid or diploid?
By means of meiosis, haploid gametes are created.
Just what is meiosis?A diploid (a cell with two sets of chromosomes) in a human is divided through a process called meiosis into a haploid (a cell with one pair of chromosomes) (one with a single set of chromosomes). Human sperm and eggs are formed as haploid cells during meiosis. The two haploid sets of chromosomes that are produced during fertilisation between a sperm and an egg are combined to form a complete diploid set, which is a new genome.
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase are only a few of the stages a cell experiences twice when it goes through both meiotic divisions. Upon reaching the end of meiosis I, the parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
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the purpose of pcr is to ______.
DNA amplification. A certain DNA or RNA segment can be replicated in PCR process millions to billions of times.
A specific DNA segment can be quickly multiplied (amplified) into millions or billions of copies using the polymerase chain reaction, often known as PCR, so that it can be further examined in the lab. The following PCR applications are surveyed here: 1) The quick alternative to cloning is the amplification of gene fragments. (2) DNA fragment modification. 3) If desired, the correct genotyping is followed by the sensitive detection of harmful bacteria. Target nucleic acid is amplified quickly and exponentially by a chemical process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
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Cloning of plants from cuttings demonstrates that ________.
A) an individual plant cell cannot de-differentiate and then re-differentiate
B) differentiated plant cells may contain embryonic mRNAs
C) plants lose genetic information in the differentiation process
D) mature plant cells retain the full genetic information needed to carry out the developmental processes to produce a new individual plant
Cloning of plants from cuttings demonstrates that mature plant cells retain the full genetic information needed to carry out the developmental processes to produce a new individual plant.
What do you mean by cloning?Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with identical or virtually identical DNA, either by natural or artificial means.
Moreover, cloning is a technique scientists use to make exact genetic copies of living things. Genes, cells, tissues, and even whole animals can all be cloned. Some clones already exist in nature.
Cloning describes the processes used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or organism.
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Is atherosclerosis a syndrome?
No, atherosclerosis is not a syndrome but it is a disease.
Plaque accumulation on the internal artery walls results in the disease atherosclerosis. Blood channels called arteries transport oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body. A sticky substance called plaque is composed of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other elements.
High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can harm the lining of the arteries, causing plaque to accumulate. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels can harm the arteries' inner layers and lead to the formation of plaque. High blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels raise your chances of developing the metabolic syndrome.
With the right care, living a healthy life with atherosclerosis is feasible, so start improving your heart health today. There is hope for those fighting atherosclerosis.
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Match the following types of prokaryotic control of gene regulation with their example.
Transcriptional , Translational, and Post Translational
1. mRNA is quickly degraded by an enzyme in the cell’s cytoplasm before a protein can be made.
2. RNA polymerase needs additional proteins to tightly bind a gene’s promoter.
3. A protein needs to have a phosphate group added to its structure before it can perform its function.
mRNA is quickly degraded by an enzyme in the cell’s cytoplasm before a protein can be made - Translational
RNA polymerase needs additional proteins to tightly bind a gene’s promoter-Transcriptional
A protein needs to have a phosphate group added to its structure before it can perform its function- Post Translational
Prokaryotes were classified within the empire Prokaryote in the two-empire system developed by Édouard Chatton. However, prokaryotes are divided into two domains in the three-domain system based on molecular analysis: Bacteria and Archaea . Eukaryota is the third domain for organisms with nuclei. Prokaryotes are thought to have evolved before eukaryotes in the study of a origins of life.
Aside from the lack of a nucleus, prokaryotes lack mitochondria and the majority of other membrane-bound organelles which distinguish the eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic gene expression has been primarily regulated at the transcriptional level. Epigenetics, transcription, post-transcription, translation, as well as post-translation all influence eukaryotic gene expression.
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Researchers studying populations of lizards from the genus Gallotia on the Canary Islands compared the protein cytochrome b in different populations. The table shows the number of differences in the cytochrome b protein between different populations. Which conclusion about the relatedness of the lizards do these data support?
The conclusion about the relatedness of the lizards that these data may support is the fact that G. simonyi and G. bravoana are the most closely related (Option B).
What are nucleotide differences in terms of evolution?Nucleotide differences in terms of evolution indicate the percentage of similarity between sequences, which may be generally associated with a common origin in the case of homologous sequences.
Therefore, with this data, we can see that nucleotide differences may be very useful to trace the evolution of species within a given taxonomic genera group.
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the first exposure to an antigen is called the ______.
The immune response occurring on the first exposure to an antigen is called. A. Secondary response.
To destroy the viruses, fungi, or bacteria, the immune system creates antibodies that are specific for each antigen. The first time a person is exposed to a type of bacteria, fungus, or virus, the immune system makes antibodies to that specific organism. Innate immunity is the first immunological, non-specific mechanism for fighting against infections. This immune response is rapid, occurring minutes or hours after aggression and is mediated by numerous cells including phagocytes, mast cells, basophils and eosinophils, as well as the complement system. The first exposure to an antigen stimulates a primary response, and subsequent exposures stimulate a faster and strong secondary response.
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BioFlix Activity: Tour of an Animal Cell Endomembrane System Part A - The endomembrane system Drag the labels onto the flowchart to trace the movement of proteins through the endomembrane system and out of the cell. Reset Help Vesicle from Golgi Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane Rough ER Vesicle from ER Start ? - ? |- ? Finish Manufacturing Transport Processing Transport Secretion
The flowchart to trace the movement of proteins through the endomembrane system and out of the cell is
Start - Rough ER (manufacturing) – Vesicle from ER (transport) – Golgi apparatus (processing) – Vesicle from Golgi (transport) – Plasma mem brane (secretion) - finish
The endomembrаne system includes the nucleаr envelope, lysosomes, vesicles, the ER, аnd Golgi аppаrаtus, аs well аs the plаsmа membrаne. These cellulаr components work together to modify, pаckаge, tаg, аnd trаnsport proteins аnd lipids thаt form the membrаnes.
The RER modifies proteins аnd synthesizes phospholipids used in cell membrаnes. The SER synthesizes cаrbohydrаtes, lipids, аnd steroid hormones; engаges in the detoxificаtion of medicаtions аnd poisons; аnd stores cаlcium ions. Sorting, tаgging, pаckаging, аnd distribution of lipids аnd proteins tаke plаce in the Golgi аppаrаtus. Lysosomes аre creаted by the budding of the membrаnes of the RER аnd Golgi. Lysosomes digest mаcromolecules, recycle worn-out orgаnelles, аnd destroy pаthogens.
Your question is incomplete, but most probably your full questions can see in the Attachment.
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Write three questions you have about the role of DNA and Chromosomes.
Focus on the following areas as
you generate questions:
• The cause and effect relationship between the genetic code and gene
expression
• Mechanisms of gene regulation
• The role of DNA segments that do not code for proteins
Make sure your questions are scientific questions, meaning they could be tested by scientists.
DNA and the chromosomes are the information containers for the human body. In order to make the person who we are.
What is the example of a gene expression?It is Lac operon in which the lac stands for lactose.
The role of chromosome-Chromosomes allow the DNA molecules to be copied easily and accurately during the cell division. Chromosomes are present in the nuclei of the cells and they make sure that DNA can be copied out accurately.
Gene regulation- This is the process which is used to make sure that the process, timing and location with which the genes are expressed out are at the accurate level.
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what attire is required at all times for the BSCI 223
For the BSCI 223, closed-toed shoes and lab coats are needed at all times.
Although it is not necessary for living in an oxygenated environment, the enzyme catalase aids in the handling of hazardous oxygen species by organisms.For the BSCI 223, closed-toed shoes and lab coats are needed at all times. The time taken to kill 90% of the population at a particular temperature multiplied by a 10 fold drop is the DRT curve, so keep that in mind. The inability to utilize a spectrophotometer due to its inability to differentiate between living and dead cells (dead cells would block the sun from the bulb because heat does not promote cell lysis). Simply combine bacteria and H2O2 to do the test. The bacteria were catalase positive if bubbles form as a result of oxygen gas generation. The bacteria were catalase negative if no bubbles form.
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sarah is building a model of a strand of dna. she should show that the nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds between
Sarah is building a model of a strand of DNA. She should show that the nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds between phosphate and sugar.
DNA typically exists two strands closely bound to one another rather than as a single strand. These two lengthy strands form a double helix when they wind around one another. The nucleotide includes a nucleobase as well as a portion of the molecule's backbone, which holds the chain together. A nucleotide is a base coupled to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups, whereas a nucleoside is a base linked to a sugar and just one or two phosphate groups. Polynucleotides are biopolymers made of several linked nucleotides, such as DNA.
DNA carries the information that make every individual unique.
Thank you for letting me anwser your question and have a delightful Christmas ^^
A model of a DNA strand is being constructed by Sarah. She has to demonstrate how the covalent connections between phosphate and sugar hold the nucleotides together. The correct option is D.
What is a nucleotide?The non-protein nitrogen portion of milk contains low-molecular-weight molecules called nucleotides that have a nitrogenous base, a sugar moiety, and one to three phosphate groups.
While every RNA nucleotide contains the sugar ribose, a DNA nucleotide contains the sugar deoxyribose.
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are examples of nitrogenous bases found in DNA. RNA does not contain thymine; instead, it contains the nitrogenous base uracil.
Sarah is building a model of the DNA strand. She has to show how the nucleotides are held together by the covalent bonds formed between phosphate and sugar.
Thus, the correct option is D.
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Your question seems incomplete, the missing options are:
Two nitrogenous bases
Nitrogenous bases and phosphate
Nitrogenous bases and sugar
Phosphate and sugar