Answer:
Explanation:
Types of Adult Stem Cells:
Hematopoietic Stem Cells (Blood Stem Cells)
Mesenchymal Stem Cells.
Neural Stem Cells.
Epithelial Stem Cells.
Skin Stem Cells.
Contentious Bones
A Case Study on the Skeletal System
WH Cliff and AW Wright
Your 80 year-old great aunt, Persis, was placing a canning jar on the top shelf of her pantry
when she stepped awkwardly off the stool and twisted her leg at the hip. She felt a sharp pain in
her hip and, after collapsing to the floor, found she could no longer stand. She was taken to the
emergency room where an X ray showed that the neck of her femur was fractured. More
detailed X ray images revealed reduced bone mass in the head and neck regions of the injured
femur, in the ends of other long bones of the body and in the vertebrae. Surgery was necessary
to repair the fractured femur and a biopsy of the bone tissue indicated that the composition of the
osteoid was normal. Healing of the fractured femur is proceeding slowly.
1. What organ(s) is(are) involved?
2. What primary tissue type is involved?
3. What specific type of tissue is affected?
Trabeculae tissue
4. What specific types of cells produce the normal microanatomy of the tissue?
5a. What is the significance of your great aunt's age and gender?
5b. What normally happens to the microanatomy of the specific tissue you identified as it ages?
6. What age-related alterations in the activities of the cells you identified cause this change in microanatomy?
7. What is the significance of your great aunt being a woman?
8. What disease caused the abnormal anatomical symptoms and led to the fracture?
Underline one: Osteoporosis or Paget's disease (osteitis deformans)
9. What aspects of the above description help you distinguish these two possibilities? Explain.
10. What notable anatomical features do the diseased locations have in common?
11. Choose a therapy that is listed in your text and explain how it works to prevent this
disease.
[If modification of the diet is suggested, which of the basic four food groups would you recommend increasing consumption?]
The problem brought on by osteoporosis is the ailment and the organs at play are those of the skeletal system.
Primary tissue type which is involved is either bone tissue or spongy tissue.
What specific type of tissue is affected?
The specific tissue at issue in this instance is the cancellous tissue, also known as the trabecula tissue. Thin and porous because the trabeculae tissues are disjointed from one another.
osteoblasts and osteocyte types of cells produce the normal microanatomy of the tissue.
What is the significance of your great aunt's age and gender?
The age of grand aunt as progresses there is increase in restorative activity and menopause leads to low oestrogen levels Auses low bone density.
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The tundra receives about as much rainfall as the
O taiga.
Odeciduous forest.
O coniferous forest.
O desert.
Answer:
Option 4) desertThe tundra only receives between six to ten inches of precipitation a year, which is less than most of the deserts on Earth. The tundra has also been referred to as a 'cold desert' due the limited precipitation.Question 2
Ceramics are strong but brittle, and are good conductors.
True false question.
True
False
False. Ceramics are strong but brittle, but they are not good conductors
What about good conductors?Aluminum, gold, bobby , brass, and sword are all effective operators of electricity.In the form of cables, we employ them in electrical circuits and systems.In general, all essence are effective electrical operators.Gold and bobby are two examples.Tableware in particular makes essence excellent electrical operators.Since bobby is less precious than tableware, electrical lines covering millions of kilometers are produced using it every time.Glass and plastic are exemplifications of insulators since they're poor electrical operators.The variations essential in the get of sexual reduplication can serve as a process for picky adaption, allowing certain people to be more set for survival.All living effects have the capability to reproduce themselves.still, populations would drop and eventually vanish as people failed from old age, complaint, If brutes are unfit to negotiate this.Because at least one electron in each snippet is free — that is, not bound to a specific snippet and free to bat about the essence without restriction — essence are good operators of heat and electricity.Learn more about good conductors here:
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5. Sharon wants to conduct an experiment to determine if increasing the concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide around a plant will affect the plant's rate of photosynthesis. She must
complete the following steps: 1.Make a graphic display with which to results to others. 2.Write down
data as she conducts repeated trials of the experiment. 3.Interpret her results. 4.Make a hypothesis.
In which order should Sharon complete these steps?
a. 4-2-3-1
b. 3-1-2-4
c. 4-3-2-1
d. 2-4-3-1
Sharon wants to conduct an experiment to determine if increasing the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide around a plant will affect the plant's rate of photosynthesis. The correct option is C 4-3-2-1 .
Plants and other living things employ a process called photosynthesis to transform light energy into chemical energy that can then be released through cellular respiration to power the organism's activities. The word "photosynthesis" comes from the Greek words "light" and "putting together," and refers to the process of creating molecules of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. These molecules, such as sugars and starches, are then stored with some of this chemical energy. [1] [2] [3] Photoautotrophs are creatures that perform photosynthesis, including most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The majority of the energy required for life on Earth is produced and maintained by photosynthesis, which is also substantially responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the atmosphere.
Even though various species perform photosynthesis in different ways, the process always starts when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centers that contain the colored pigments/chromophores green chlorophyll (and other colors). Unlike bacteria, which have these proteins incorporated in the plasma membrane, plants store these proteins in organelles called chloroplasts, which are most prevalent in leaf cells.
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[GT.03]Chemical evolution explains how living systems were created from
A) living atoms
B) animal atoms
C) plant molecules
D) non-living molecules
Chemical evolution explains how living systems were created from non-living molecules; this is present in option D, and here the theory explains that the molecules interact with each other to form life.
What is the evolution?Evolution is a process in which organisms evolve with time; it is a continuous process that takes place in nature every time and makes the animal capable of survival in nature, and there are different theories that explain this process.
Hence, chemical evolution explains how living systems were created from non-living molecules; this is present in option D, and here the theory explains that the molecules interact with each other to form life.
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HELP IM ON LIMITED TIME
The DNA sequence of the African great apes is compared to that of
South American monkeys, and an average difference of about 7.0% is
observed. This is much smaller than the difference between either
primate and other mammals. What type of evidence for evolution is
this an example of?
Select one:
Embryological
Molecular
Anatomical
DNA
Answer:
This is an example of molecular evidence for evolution.
Explanation:
This is an example of molecular evidence for evolution. Molecular evidence for evolution refers to the study of the genetic makeup of different species to understand their evolutionary relationships. In this case, the scientist is comparing the DNA sequences of two different groups of primates and observing that the average difference is relatively small. This suggests that these species are closely related and likely evolved from a common ancestor, providing evidence for the theory of evolution.
origin of vertical orientation in two-dimensional metal halide perovskites and its effect on photovoltaic performance
Answer:
Z- Covalent Bond
Explanation:
Convalent bond
DNA is a double-stranded molecule made up of complementary, antiparallel strands. Based on what you know about complementary base pairing, fill in the rest of the details in the figure.
*The nucleotide pairs in double-stranded DNA follow the base-pairing rules: A with T, and G with C. The complementary strands are antiparallel, with one strand running 5' to 3', and its complement running 3' to 5'. The 3' end of a DNA strand has an exposed -OH group, and the 5' end has a phosphate group.
The base-pairing guidelines are followed by the nucleotides pairs in double-stranded DNA: A with T, G with C, etc. A double-stranded molecule with complementary, antiparallel strands makes up DNA.
What is DNA and what does it do?The information molecule is DNA. IIt provides the knowledge required to make proteins, another type of important molecule. The 46 major chromosome sets that make it up every one of your cells have these instructions. The numerous little DNA pieces that make up each chromosome are known as genes.
What precisely is DNA?DNA, also known as deoxyribonucleic acid, appears to be a molecule that houses the genetic material required for a creature to grow and function. The double helical, which is composed of two linked threads that loop around each other to resemble a twisted ladder, is the shape of DNA.
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Correct and expand upon this statement: "Adjacent plant cells are joined together by walls made up of only phospholipid molecules and proteins."
In plants, cellulose makes up the cell walls.
What substance makes up plant cell walls?The pectin polysaccharide matrix, which is highly cross-linked, contains a matrix of cellulose microfibrils and cross-linking glycans that make up the cell wall. Lignin may accumulate in secondary cell walls. Bilayers of phospholipids are essential parts of cell membranes. The lipid bilayer serves as a physical barrier to the entry and exit of molecules and ions from the cell.
What is the name of plant cell walls?Cytoskeleton. The structure of cell walls varies between taxonomic groups and species, and it may be influenced by the kind of cell and the stage of development. The polysaccharides cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin make up the main cell wall of land plants.
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PLEASE HELP !!! PLEASE
Do the last 2 columns with the venae cavae and lungs
Path of Blood Through the Heart
To demonstrate that O₂-poor blood is kept separate from O-rich blood, identify the path blood takes from
the right side of the heart to the aorta by filling in the following blanks. The blood passes through
the lungs to go from the right to the left sides of the heart. Which side of the heart pumps O₂-poor
blood right ventricleich side pumps O₂-rich blood? left ventricle
186
Venae Cavae
Lungs
valve
valve
Lungs
Aorta
valve
valve
The pulmonary valve (PV) allows the right ventricle to pump oxygen-poor blood into the major pulmonary artery (MPA).
Explain about the lungs?The process of exchanging gases, known as respiration, is the lungs' primary purpose (or breathing). During respiration, carbon dioxide, a metabolic waste product, exits the blood and oxygen from the incoming air enters. A diminished ability of the lungs to exchange gases is referred to as a lowered lung function.
On one or both sides of your chest, you may experience lung pain when you breathe in and out. Since the lungs contain so few pain receptors, the pain technically isn't emanating from inside them. The lining of the lungs, which does contain pain receptors, may be the source of the discomfort instead.
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Which statement is true regarding heterotrophs? A. They do not need glucose. B. They can make their own food through photosynthesis. C. Their cells contain chloroplasts. D. Their cells contain motochondria.
Answer:
C. Their cells contain chloroplasts
Explanation:
A child with blood type O is born to a woman named Ingrid, who has blood type B. Ingrid has narrowed down the possible father to two men she met on a wild ski vacation in the Swiss Alps. The first man, Lars, has blood type AB. The second man, Sven, has blood type A.
Answer:
1. Ingrid's blood type is BO.
2. No, Lars could not be the father.
3. Yes, Sven could be the father.
Explanation:
Ingrids blood type is BO because she had to have an O recessive allele in order to have an O child. This means that her man has to have an O allele as well.
Lars has AB blood type so he has two dominant alleles that will always mask an O recessive. Lars children will never have an O blood type regardless of the female.
Sven has blood type A. Technically this could be he is AA or AO. However, the only way for Ingrid to have an O child is if the father also has an O allele so this means Sven has blood type AO.
Refer to the punnet squares that are attached.
determining of tyrosine in human plasma samples by uv irradiation-induced chemiluminescence (cl) method
The method uv irradiation-induced chemiluminescence (cl) is used in the tyrosine determination as this is as this enzyme can convert l-tyrosine to the nonchemiluminescent l-dopa.
Therefore, our novel pulse UV irradiation CL method for the determination of l-tyrosine was not only suitable for the determination of this vital amino acid but also extended to the successful determination of its producing and metabolizing enzymes and their inhibitors.
The proposed technique confirmed terrific sensitivity and ultraselectivity closer to l-tyrosine. The mechanism of the advanced CL technique become studied the usage of ROS scavengers, HPLC, and mass spectrometry. The technique become linear for l-tyrosine withinside the variety of 0.03-50 μM.
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AP Biology PLEASE HELP ME !!!!! Discuss how DNA comparisons support the theory of evolution.
Describe how technological advances have contributed to evolutionary theory.
Describe the process shown in the image here.
Explain which two species are most closely related and how the data can be used to draw your conclusion.
The technologies have already significantly altered life patterns, resulting in a significantly faster standard evolution.
What is evolution theory based on DNA?The DNA of an organism influences its appearance, behavior, and physiology. As a result, changes in an organism's DNA can affect all aspects of its life. Mutations are necessary for evolution; they are the building blocks of genetic variation. Without mutation, evolution will not occur.Darwin proposed that species evolve over time, that new species emerge from pre-existing species, and that all species share a common ancestor. According to this model, each species has its own set of heritable (genetic) differences from the common ancestor that have accumulated gradually over very long time periods.DNA evidence supports Darwin's central hypothesis: that heritable variation arises continuously and gradually accumulates, causing lineages to diverge from one another (though not necessarily at the same rate).To learn more about evolution theory refer to :
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calculate the allelic variance of a single locus after one generation for the following populations starting with an allele frequency of p
Heterozygotes occur 42% of the time.
What does Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium refer to?According to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, if no unfavorable influences exist, genetic variation in a population will remain stable from one generation to the next.
A series of requirements must be satisfied for the population to have constant gene pool frequencies in a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. There must be a huge sample size, random mating, no mutation, no migration, and no natural selection. The population does not have to be at its carrying capacity.
Given ,
Frequency of allele P = 0.7 or 70%,
Frequency of allele p = 0.3 or 30%.
From Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium : (p^2 + 2pq + q^2)
2pq (Heterozygous genotype) = 2 x 0.7 x 0.3 = 0.42 or 42%
Therefore the frequency of heterozygotes is 42%
The complete question is : In a population with two alleles for a gene locus (P and p), the allele frequency of P is 0.7. What would be the frequency of heterozygotes if the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
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a food web cascade occurs when one species has an indirect effect on species at a different level of the energy pyramid (true or false).
FALSE. Whenever one species has had an indirect impact on species at a nother scale of the energy pyramid, this is known as a food web cascade.
The ecological phenomenon known as trophic cascade, which involves reciprocal shifts in the relative populaces of predator and prey along a food chain, is triggered by the addition or deletion of top predators. This phenomena typically has significant consequences on the structure of ecosystems and the cycling of nutrients. But extinction seems likely to happen if environmental conditions shift too quickly for a species to adapt so if individuals from such a species lack the traits required to survive in a new environment. Whenever one species has had an indirect impact on species at a nother scale of the energy pyramid, this is known as a food web cascade.A mutation is a modification that occurs in the sequence of our DNA as a consequence of errors made during DNA replication or environmental influences like UV radiation and cigarette smoke.
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Which bio molecule is primarily found in the double layer of the cell membrane
Answer:
The most prevalent form of lipid in the membrane is a phospholipid. The outer and inner layers of phospholipids are made up of two layers.
Explanation:
aberrant oligodendroglial-vascular interactions disrupt the blood-brain barrier, triggering cns inflammation
True, aberrant oligodendroglial-vascular interactions disrupt the blood-brain barrier, triggering cns inflammation.
Disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is vital to initiation and perpetuation of disease in multiple sclerosis (MS). We document an interplay among oligodendroglia and vasculature in MS that distinguishes human white count number damage from regular rodent demyelinating damage. we discover perivascular clustering of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) in certain lively MS lesions, representing an inability to properly detach from vessels following perivascular migration.
Perivascular OPCs can themselves disrupt the BBB, interfering with astrocyte endfeet and endothelial tight junction integrity, resulting in altered vascular permeability and an related CNS infection. Aberrant Wnt tone in OPCs mediates their dysfunctional vascular detachment and additionally ends in OPC secretion of Wif1, which interferes with Wnt ligand function on endothelial tight junction integrity.
Aberrant oligodendroglial-vascular interaction in MS indicates that aberrant OPC perivascular migration no longer most effective impairs their lesion recruitment but also can act as a ailment perpetuator thru disruption of the BBB.
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Which of the following is primarily responsible for limiting the number of trophic levels in most ecosystems? A. Many primary and higher-order consumers are opportunistic feeders. B. Nutrient cycling rates tend to be limited most by decomposition. C. Decomposers compete with higher-order consumers for nutrients and energy. D. Energy transfer between trophic levels is usually less than 20 percent efficient. E. Nutrient cycles involve both abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems.
Energy transfer between trophic levels is usually less than 20 percent efficient.
What is primarily responsible for limiting the number of trophic levels ?Trophic levels are the different levels of feeding in a food chain or web. There are typically no more than four trophic levels due to the fact that as levels increase, biomass and energy levels decrease. Higher-order consumers and decomposers compete for nutrients and energy.
A trophic level's food supply is typically only transferred to the following level by 10%. Very little usable energy is left after four trophic levels because the amount of available energy decreases as we ascend the tropics. The food chain therefore only has three to four tropical levels.
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A newborn is protected against certain digestive and respiratory infections thanks to IgA from the mother's. Select one: a. milk. b. blood. c. intestine.
IgA from the mother's milk helps to protect a baby against several digestive and respiratory illnesses.
In the type of secretory IgA, breast milk serves as a child's initial source of specific antibodies immune defense in the digestive system (SIgA). IgA is crucial because it covers & seals your baby's digestive and respiratory systems to keep infections out of their bodies and bloodstreams. Your kid can be protected by the IgA antibodies from a number of diseases, including those brought on by bacteria, viruses, fungus, and parasites. IgA is released into mother and child's blood, GI tract, & mucosal membranes. The majority of antibodies are too big to pass via breastmilk in significant quantities. IgA, however, passes through the lactocyte barrier and into the milk.
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Ptolemy and Copernicus were early astronomers. Ptolemy believed that Earth was the center of the solar system and Copernicus believed that the Sun was the center of the solar system. Which model would the astronomers most likely use to support their beliefs?
Ptolemy would use the geocentric model and Copernicus would use the heliocentric model.
Ptolemy would use the heliocentric model and Copernicus would use the geocentric model.
Ptolemy and Copernicus would both use the heliocentric model
Ptolemy and Copernicus would both use the geocentric model.
The model which the astronomers would most likely use to support their beliefs is that Ptolemy would use the geocentric model and Copernicus would use the heliocentric model which is therefore denoted as option A.
Who is an Astronomer?This is referred to as a scientist who studies the stars, planets, and other natural objects in space.
The geocentric model of the universe was first used by scientists as they though that the earth was the center of the solar system which was coined by Ptolemy.
However with time, studies by Copernicus were able to correct that notion as it was discovered that the sun is the center of the solar system. This therefore means that Ptolemy would use the geocentric model and Copernicus would use the heliocentric model.
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experiment for the undergraduate organic laboratory: an enantioselective aldol reaction catalyzed by methyl prolinamide
In this regard, an intriguing example is the catalytic asymmetric aldol reaction, which is a key C–C bond-forming event in both chemistry and biology.
Is L proline a catalyst that is enantioselective?The enantioselectivity that was seen in the examined reactions was due to the L-proline acting as a catalyst, according to the X-ray structures, e.e., and optical activity of the produced compounds.
Enantioselective reactions: what are they?According to the IUPAC, it is "a chemical reaction (or reaction sequence) in which one or more additional chiral elements are produced in a substrate molecule and which creates the stereoisomeric (enantiomeric or diastereomeric) products in uneven proportions."
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Question:
experiment for the undergraduate organic laboratory: an enantioselective aldol reaction catalyzed by methyl prolinamide. Give reason why ?
Which statement describes an event after which primary succession might successfully occur?
A wildfire destroys several thousand square kilometers of grassland.
O A glacier retreats, leaving behind a large area of rock.
O Warming temperatures in the spring thaw soil upon which seeds and fungal spores can grow.
O The ocean water falls back as the tide goes out, exposing a large stretch of sandy ocean front.
The primary succession might successfully occur in the glacier retreats, leaving behind a large area of rock. Thus, the correct option is B.
What is Primary succession?Primary succession is a type of ecological succession. Ecological succession is the evolution of a biological community's ecological structure in which the plants and animals first colonize on a barren, lifeless habitat such as a rock.
Primary succession happens in places where a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time and no living organism has ever found in that area. This can happen when the lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil on the land. During primary succession, organisms must start from the beginning as conditions are not favorable.
Therefore, the correct option is B.
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Draw a punnets square for the following genotypes: mom-Cc Dad-Cc. List the
Phenotypes and genotypes.
The total number of boxes in your Punnett Square should be counted. You are then provided with the estimated total number of offspring. Subtract the genotypes and phenotype's prevalence in the population) from (the total number of offspring). To get your %, multiply the value from step 4 by 100.
What are A and B's phenotypes?You will have the type A blood phenotype if your genotype is AA or AO; the type B blood phenotype if your genotype is BB or BO; and the type AB blood phenotype if your genotype is AB.
BB and BB belong to what genotype?Homozygous genotypes and genotypes are those that have two identical alleles, i.e., "BB" and "bb."
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Which molecule is most responsible for determining an organism's eye color, body structure, and cellular
enzyme production?
Answer:
DNA creates the cellular energy used by cells inside all forms of life. DNA is coiled and folded into the nucleus of each cell inside eukaryotes. DNA is changed from a nucleic acid into all other forms biomolecules to make cells.
Explanation:
Which of the following homeostatic functions involve both skeletal and smooth muscle in the reproductive system?
ejection of semen
regulation of menstrual blood flow from the uterus
movement of oocyte along the uterine tube
orgasm during intercourse
ejection of semen
The ejection of semen is a homeostatic function in the reproductive system that includes both skeletal and smooth muscle. Thus, the correct answer to this question is A.
The skeletal muscle is engaged during an erection, while the smooth muscle is engaged during semen ejection.
What are the differences between skeletal muscle and smooth muscle?Strait muscles linked to bones are referred to as "skeletal muscles." The neurological and endocrine systems control these voluntary, multinucleated, cylindrical muscles. Uninucleated smooth muscles have tapering ends. These non-striated muscles are controlled by the neurological system. Actin and myosin are two proteins that are essential for muscular contraction and are found in both skeletal and smooth muscles. However, actin is present in greater quantities in smooth muscles.
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Different disinfectants are soaked on sterile pads that are then placed on a lawn of bacteria. The photo below shows the results after 24 hours of incubation. Which antimicrobial agent (A through F) is the most effective against the bacteria that were plated? Explain your reasoning.
The antimicrobial agent is marked with A.
This is an antimicrobial susceptibility test. This is where various antimicrobial agents are soaked and added to the bacterial culture. If the cultured bacteria are sensitive to this antimicrobial agent, the culture plate will exhibit a zone of inhibition around the soaked pad.
And the effect is measured by the area of the zone of inhibition. In the photograph, A is the most effective because it has the largest inhibition zone area. A > B > D > C > E > F. Alcohol is highly effective against enveloped viruses (60-70% ethyl alcohol) 70% isopropyl alcohol or ethanol is highly effective as an antibacterial agent.
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Drag the tiles to the boxes to form correct pairs.
Match the factors with the way in which they can affect a local climate,
latifude
The leeward side of a mountain receives farless rainfall than the windward side.
elevation
At night, a coastal community onjoys milder temperatures than its sister cily farther intand.
bodies of water
Johannesburg, South Africa, has higher average annual temperatures than Dublin, Ireland.
Each of the factors should be matched with the way in which they can affect a local climate as follows;
Topography → The leeward side of a mountain receives far less rainfall than the windward side.Bodies of water → At night, a coastal community enjoys milder temperature than its sister city farther inland.Latitude → Johannesburg, South Africa, has higher average annual temperatures than Dublin, Ireland.Ground cover → City officials use a mixture of crushed gravel and limestone instead of blacktop for the new bike trail.Elevation → Air molecules are more loosely packed near a mountain peak than they are near the mountain's base.What is a climatic oscillation?In Geography, a climatic oscillation can be defined as the naturally reoccurring changes in the climate of planet Earth that is typically associated with an interaction of atmospheric and oceanic conditions that occurs at different periods of time.
What is a line of latitude?In Geography, a line of latitude is sometimes referred to as parallels and it can be defined as geographical coordinates that are typically used for specifying the the North pole (terrestrial pole) and South poles (Meridian) of the Earth.
As a result of the difference in line of latitudes, Johannesburg in South Africa would experience higher average annual temperatures than Dublin in Ireland.
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Complete Question:
Drag the tiles to the boxes to form correct pairs.
Match the factors with the way in which they can affect a local climate.
latitude
The leeward side of a mountain receives far less rainfall than the windward side.
elevation
At night, a coastal community enjoys milder temperature than its sister city farther inland.
bodies of water
Johannesburg, South Africa, has higher average annual temperatures than Dublin, Ireland.
topography
City officials use a mixture of crushed gravel and limestone instead of blacktop for the new bike trail.
ground cover
Air molecules are more loosely packed near a mountain peak than they are near the mountain's base.
3) What is ONE important thing you would like to have your teacher help you improve/work on in your Lab Report? Example: “I need help with my tables.” “I need help writing my procedure.”
Owl Pellet Lab
Answer:
"I need help with documenting my data/answers"
Explanation:
Just an idea :)
two of the steps in the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate (steps 4 and 5 in the figure) do not involve any of the three carbons of pyruvate, yet are essential to the operation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase (pdh) complex. Why are steps 4 and 5 essential to the operation of the PDH complex?• They transfer a thiol group from coenzyme A to acetyl lipoyllysine.• They reduce the disulfide bond in oxidized lipoyllysine.• They reoxidize the reduced lipoamide cofactor.• They catalyze the synthesis of hydroxyethyl thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP).
The two steps catalyzed by dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) are required to regenerate the oxidized form of lipoate, bound to dihydrolipoyl transacetylase, from the dihydrolipoyl (reduced) form produced in the oxidation of pyruvate. First, FAD is reduced to FADH2 to reoxidize the dihydrolipoate, then NAD+ is reduced to NADH to reoxidize the FADH2 to complete the reaction.
What three steps are included in the breakdown of pyruvate ?Pyruvate, which is created during glycolysis, enters the mitochondria to start aerobic respiration. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA to start aerobic respiration. Decarboxylation, NAD+ reduction, and coenzyme A attachment are the three steps that make up this conversion.
To create acetyl CoA, pyruvate is subjected to oxidative decarboxylation. A byproduct of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. In the presence of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, pyruvate is oxidized.
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